Re-Ordering Asia

THE 21’st century is going to witness a strange relationship between ASIA and WEST with past prejudices, self centered mutual contempt , geo- strategic alliances , fear , friendship and a bygone history along with future possibilities will act as a strong driving force for determining present developments between these two great civilization .Since an era when Acheminian Persia intimidating the puny cattle herders of Europa to Alexander the great overtaking Persia , from indigenous tribe of Asia storming and destroying the mighty Roman empire to Jesus Christ an ‘Asian’ man becoming the God of Europe or Islamic Arabian conquering Spain or from Christendom’s crusade assaulting West Asia to Ottoman Turks taking over Constanipole with finally a Victorian Europe becoming the colonial masters of world and the magic of capitalism generation never seen before, the world taken a full whole round waiting for the fresh chapters to be written in new global age .Foreign policies just like any other policies are driven by two needs : (a) Immediate & (b) Long term .For long term there are some strong,static, fundamental realism which India should strongly keep in regard whatever plan she adopts for the furtherance of international politics.

(1) India cannot detach herself with Asia how much she is diplomaticaly getting closure with the West.Our policy of making the balance between geography and ideology should not go at such level damaging our long term interests.

(2) Though Asia as a continent is traditionaly at advantaged position for covering 70% of earth’s geography,it is equally vunreble due to its far stretched ethnic & ideological diversities.

(3) West Anglo Saxons though pretend that they consider Asia and ‘downtrodden’ Africa with same eyes but they are equally and fearfully aware,feel insecure with Asia’s past and inconvienient with its developing efficiencies and specially ‘big’ nations of Asia will be always regarded as contender of power and prestige whatever ideology these countries follow suiting to West or not.

Though West is uniting itself under the banner of E.U & N.A.T.O but it wants different kind of systematic arrangements for Asia where different powers,civilisations and Political States keep on balancing each other viciously interlocked in a inconvienient relationship towards each other and from here the whole problem starts.India living in such a volatile atmosphere will badily jeopardise her power and position. History shows big states and empires don’t do mistakes and disasters.Empires are clever, smart, their working is not based on fancies and whims of mob idealism but work on true principles of strategic realism – constantly trying to mould possibilities,political ‘profits’ in its favour .Ego of individual+Resource control+Long Term Political Advantage are three overlapped reasons and need due to which any war on this globe is fought, well in the era of ‘United Nation Conventions & Regulations’the first two reasons are not possible now for any nation initiating warfare adventure but in a process Iraq was quiet smartly invaded by America for third reason to creat a powerful Islamic Shia block in the Islamic world dominated uptill by Sunni sect of Islam and reasons for invasion cleverly manupulated by West media by sponsoring various after various giving twisted reasons that invasion was done to find W.M.D or capturing oil fields or to finish evil empire of Saddam and then finally invasion proclaimed as a great disaster!! to misguide the world from knowing the actual cause of unprovoked adventure .The problem is grave because West is going to sort this kind of arrangement for this part of ASIA too and will try to creat the long bridge of ‘balancers’with India balancing China and Pakistan balancing India.Well China and India are mature nation , they will only allow a degree of mutual hostility which will not be self-destructive for themselves but this can’t be said about Pakistan which as a rogue nation ,long ago culturally converted whose ethinicaly scattered people have only history of being hired as feudal mercinaries and free lance fighters fulfilling the assingments of past Indian kings and empires,it today govern itself on the ‘Murawa’ tradition of Arabian tribal politics much handicaped to understand the sophisticacy of 21st century world politics.Pakistan is politicaly failing not due to lack of democracy but due to lack of ‘history’.

For West,Tibet and Kashmir is still the unresolved issues which must be solved even at the cost of territorial integrity of these two big powerful countries but somehow the internal dissents in Pakistan is not at all the issue and somehow it must be kept stable, united and peacful at any cost so in future it could be willfuly used as handy trumpcard to control India’s unboundable rising power and presitge, infact the way in which U.S is silently fuelling Pakistan with modern military equipment capable of holding large scale warfare now truly exposing the true intention of U.S which looks to be more brutal and dangerous than criminal determination of ‘Jehadis’ against India.Now we can decisively conclude that Pakistans Kargil misadventure against India and occasional unprovoked firing at borders somewhere points towards the backing of suspicious intigation of Britannia and America or Europe & America with a very covered hand & with a very high degree of scoundrelism provided Pakistan with various nuclear arsenals risking the entire security of subcontinent preparing small countries as an islands for counter launchpad against big country like India on which the stability of whole Asia depends,so what’s the solution of such dirty politics?- yes the solution is to play more dirty politics i.e to bring out and work for the worst fear of West i.e ‘UNITY OF ASIA’ofcourse not in a impossible political sense but in a sense of ‘conscience of common interests’and its only Indian politicians and administration who can creat such conscience as other nation of Asia are incapable or intellectually inefficient to do this .India must try to initiate and catalyse a new table conference for Asia on its soil where only those countries of Asia should be the member which technicaly at one or other point of their history were the creators or cradle of various civilizations,religion and culture these nation can be-: (1) Saudi Arabia-[Babylonian hub& sunni sect of islam] (2) Iran-[Persianate influence&shia sect of islam] (3) Israel-[land of jews] (4) Japan-[Shinto Buddhism] (5) China-[Confucist] (6) Russia-[Orthodox Christian] (7) India-[Hindus] (8) Thailand-[another brand of Buddhism] (9) One country of rest of ASEAN each time on rotationary basis (10) One country of Central Asia each time on rotationary basis .

Even with one percent of common understanding through such meet India could achieve many things for herself such as-:
(1) It will put a severe check on the tendency of America and Europe of putting the nose in every small skirmishes in Asia and becoming the broker of peace in every small conflict.
(2) It will also prove a big blow to Pakistan’s continous attempt of projecting itself as a champion representative of Sunni Muslim world. With such forced isolation from this big league Pakistan indirectly will be shown its actual place in global world.
(3) Such common meet can also discuss the legitimacy and actual intentions behind things like Kyoto protocals which looks more like the frivilious agenda aired for haulting Asians industrial progress , it is something to do more with West inconvienience regarding rapid Asian modernization rather than climatic change or degradations which was not at all the issue when Western civilization was modernizing itself.
(4) Such common conference will also be very much fruitful for India solving its inconvienient relationship with China which is there due to unsettled border confusion.China could be decisively convinced regarding the futility of encircling India and needless assertion which will only result in regional tensions and as result there will be bandwagoning of every Asian country tending to invite non Asian parties to meddle in its affair, same as such for Saudi Arabia too which could also be convinced for diverting its wahabism away from Asian countries as it is causing unstability to whole continent and indirectly to them also.
(5) Through such common conference India can also initiate some kind of joint Asian forces comprising that of India’s, Iran,Russia,Japan or even China looking after the security of Afghanistan if in future U.S vacate that region in uncertainity which now seems to be more possiblity as U.S seems want to hand over indirectly a more strong hand and want to provide much stronger muscle to Pakistan to impose influence in that region .
(6) Such common meet can also look for some kind of re-negotiation in the very fundamentals of international laws related with intellectual property rights and copyright issues.The new age technology,whoever invent or even innovate it should have full right to reap profits from its trade and mutual sharing without any necessity of asking license from ‘self proclaimed hereditary holder’ of those technologies.
(7) Such common meet will also proved to be prompt in questioning the logic behind establishment of every united nation offices,agencies and headquarters solely in European states and America.
(8) Such common meet can reach and compel to various U.N. base organisations to also include the agencies and machineries of Asian countries for any global survey or research conducted in any part of the globe rather than mere using some Asian personality as a fake intellectual pawn sitting as a pseudo- head in any survey or research conducted solely by European syndicates under the garb and tag of ‘U.N agencies and institutions’.
(9) Such common meet can also compel Vatican City, a christian city state to re-define its political status and competency of being a distinctive political member in united nation organisation .The door should be also open for other religious city state heads too.

This not at all to suggest that India should start despising West or loving Asian countries but she must be quick to understand the need of the time and science and should act according to that.In 21st century India must govern herself according to what the ancient Maurayan’s,Gupta’s or Mughal’s wished for her but not according to what today’s ‘basterdize coconuts’ think.The nation of India must decide what kind of power it want to be? mere balancer degrading herself and other around or the country writing the very ‘definition of globalization’.

India After Maurayan Empire

Rule of Pushyamitra Sunga after Brihadratha Maurya 

Examples of simple housing. Art work from Maurya's successors(Sungas, Andras) mostly

Pushyamitra Sunga (185 B.C -149 B.C ) proved a major turning point in Indian history .After masterminding an assassination of last Maurayan king 'Brihadratha' he put a conclusive fullstop to Maurayan lineage kingship and quite successful in frictioning and slowing down the disintegration of India which was happening fastly after Ashoka-The Great.He was also a contemporary of Panini the great grammarian. However he seemed to be advocated Brahmanic dharma that's why he was seen with a contempt from Buddhists.He repulsed indo greek attack on India and put a foundation of Saket (modern Ayodhya) . 

Shunga royal family, West Bengal, 1st century BCE.

The Shunga Empire was an ancient Indian dynasty from Magadha that controlled vast areas of the Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, after the fall of the Maurya Empire. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra also held court at Besnagar (modern Vidisha) in eastern Malwa.

Shunga masculine figurine (molded plate). 2nd-1st century BCE.

Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There were ten Shunga rulers. The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought the Kalinga, the Satavahana dynasty, the Indo-Greek Kingdom and possibly the Panchalas and Mathuras.
Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the stupa at Bharhut, and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi script and was used to write Sanskrit.
The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronizing culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya was composed in this period. Artistry also progressed with the rise of the Mathura art style.

The Kanva dynasty succeeded the Shungas around 73 BCE.

Pushyamitra deserves some credit that in an age of decay and dissolution, he could at least keep a larger part of the Gangetic valley in unity under his rule. In the wider context of historical continuity, thus, the Sunga rule is noteworthy for maintaining law and order in the Magadhan kingdom, even though for a brief period.

Shunga woman with child. 2nd–1st century BCE.

Some accounts about the rule of Pushyamitra Sunga are available from the Buddhist literature. Divyabadana describes him as a king who was hostile towards the religion of the Buddha. It is said that he attempted to destroy the famous Buddhist monastery at Kukkutarama built by Emperor Asoka near the capital Pataliputra.

But he failed to do so, because some supernatural forces intervened to protect that sacred place. It is also mentioned that the King wanted to take the life of some Buddhist monks of Eastern Punjab, but here, too, he could not succeed. Taranatha, the renowned Tibbetan Author, also described about some of the activities of Pushyamitra against Buddhism.

Some historians presume that the Buddhists were perhaps unhappy with the Sunga king for his pro-Brahmanic policies, and therefore painted him in a dark colour. On the other hand, evidences are there to show that Pushyamitra showed equal respect to the sentiments of both the Brahmins and the Buddhists.

Bronze coin of the Shunga period, Eastern India. 2nd–1st century BCE.

For example, it is known from a small inscription found at Ayodhya that the King performed an ASHWAMEDHA YAJNA or the ceremony of Horse-Sacrifice in accordance with the ancient monarchical tradition. This would have certainly pleased the Brahmins who saw no such religious rites during Asoka’s days when the Buddhists opposed the practice of animal-sacrifice.At the same time, however, when that Brahmin King Pushyamirta ruled, the Buddhists could construct huge Buddhist Stupas at places like Sanchi and Barhut. Evidences are also available to show that during the Sunga rule, the people made big donations to Buddhist monasteries without any fear. It can be said that though the Sungas ruled their kingdom as Brahmins, they allowed the Buddhists to freely carry on their religious activities in the country. That speaks of the spirit of tolerance which prevailed in India in ancient times in matters of religion.

• An inscription at Bodh Gaya at the Mahabodhi Temple records the construction of the temple as follows:

"The gift of Nagadevi the wife of Emperor Brahmamitra."

• Another inscription reads:

"The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of Emperor Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace shrine.

Cunningham has regretted the loss of the latter part of these important records. As regards the first coping inscription, he has found traces of eleven Brahmi letters after "Kuramgiye danam", the first nine of which read "rajapasada-cetika sa". Bloch reads these nine letters as "raja-pasada-cetikasa" and translates this expression in relation to the preceding words:

"(the gift of Kurangi, the wife of Indragnimitra and

the mother of living sons), "to the caitya (cetika)

of the noble temple", taking the word raja before

pasada as an epithet on ornans, distinguishing the

temple as a particularly large and stately building

similar to such expressions as rajahastin 'a noble

elephant', rajahamsa `a goose (as distinguished from

hamsa 'a duck'), etc." Cunningham has translated the

expression by "the royal palace, the caitya",

suggesting that "the mention of the raja-pasada would

seem to connect the donor with the king's family,"

Luders doubtfully suggests "to the king's temple" as

a rendering of "raja-pasada-cetikasa."

Political Achievements:

The former glory of Magadha was no longer there when Pushyamitra Sunga occupied the throne of Pataliputra. The size of the kingdom stood much reduced. Even that reduced territory was not secured. Exactly at the time when Pushyamitra killed the last Maurya Emperor, the territory of Vidarbha proclaimed independence and separated itself from the Magadhan territory. The new king, therefore, declared war against Vidarbha. At a much later time, the great poet Kalidasa of the Gupta Age described in his historical drama ‘Malavika- Agnimitram’ about the heroic deeds of Prince Agnimitra, son of Pushyamitra Sunga, and of his victory over Vidarbha.

There was a historical controversy over an important issue in connection with the rule of Pushyamitra. In the famous Hatigumpha Inscription of Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga it is mentioned that Kharavela invaded Pataliputra and defeated the ruling King of Magadha named Brihaspati Mitra. At first, some historians identified this Brihaspati Mitra with Pushyamitra Sunga.But further researches led to the conclusion that the aforesaid identification was not correct. It was established that Emperor Kharavela belonged to the First Century B.C. and was not a contemporary of Pushyamitra. So, when he invaded Pataliputra, the ruling King of Magadha was a different person and his name was Brihaspati Mitra whom the Inscription wrote as ‘Bahasatimitam’.

In brief, Pushyamitra Sunga maintained his authority over the territory which he inherited from the last Maurya monarch. Even though he was not an aggressive King to extend his Kingdom, yet he ruled over a large portion of the Gangetic valley and Northern India.

Foreign Invasions:

The time of Pushyamitra saw some foreign invasions which endangered northern India. These invaders were usually termed in Indian literature as the Yavanas’. But, it is ascertained from historical evidences that they were, in fact, the Bactrian Greeks. From Patanjali’s writings it is understood that these foreigners from the North-West penetrated into the Gangetic Valley and advanced as for as Ayodliya. In the writings of Kalidasa also are seen references to battles between the invading Yavanas and the Sunga armies.

It is not clear who was the leader or king of the foreign invaders during the Sunga period. While some historians tried to identify that invader as King Demetrius, some others think of him as Menandar. Whosoever might have been the king of the invading forces, he was not able to conquer the Sunga territory. Evidences suggest that a grandson of King Pushyamirta led the royal army against the enemies, defeated the Indo-Greek forces, and drove them out from the Sunga Kingdom.

Death of Pushyamitra:

For achieving victory over Vidarbha and for his successes in driving out the foreign invaders, Pushyamitra demonstrated his glory as a powerful king by performing two Horse-Sacrifice ceremonies. According to ancient Brahmanical traditions, it was only ‘a victorious king who was entitled to the privilege of performing the Ashwamedha Yajna, and not the kings of ordinary stature. In order words, Pushyamitra might not have been a great king, but yet, he was not too weak as a ruler.

Agnimitra Sunga:

The founder of the Sunga Dynasty Pushymitra was after all a regicide. He might have saved the dying kingdom of Magadha for some time, but his kingship suffered from criticisms. He was described as a pro-Bralimanic and anti-Buddhist king by some critics. His son and successor Agnimitra, however, came to the throne as a legitimate king. Furthermore, he proved himself as an able and benevolent ruler.

When Agnimitra was the Crown Prince, he showed his administrative capability as the governor of the Vidisha region. When Magadha had to fight against Vidarbha, it was Agnimitra who led the Sunga army as its supreme commander against the enemies. By virtue of his courage and heroism, he won the battles. It was for him that Vidarbha became a part of the Sunga Kingdom.

His heroic deeds seem to have made him a legendary figure, so much so that the celebrated poet of the Gupta golden Age, Kalidasa, wrote his famous historical drama ‘Malavika-Agnimitram’, depicting therein Prince Aghimitra as the hero of the drama.

Some coins of Agnimitra’s reign have come to light. But they do not provide any indication about his personality or rule, unlike the Gupta coins of the later times. It is rather tragic that this King ruled only for eight years, as is ascertained from some historical evidences.

Fall of the Sungas:

Darkness descended on the reigns of the successors of Agnimitra Sunga. It is presumed that his son Vasumitra came to the throne after the death of his father. About this king, only this much is known that as a grandson of Pushyamitra, while a very young prince, he led the Sunga armies against the foreign Yavana invaders and defeated them in battles.

Nothing is known about the successors of Vasumitra. But one fact is certain that there was a King named Brihaspati Mitra who ruled over Magadha when Kharavela led his armies to invade the north. According to the Puranic sources, the Sunga rule in Pataliputra lasted for a period of 112 years. The last king of that Dynasty Devabhuti was driven out from the throne by his minister Basudeva who established a new ruling dynasty known as the Kanva Dynasty.

Ritual Vase
India - Chandraketugarh
1st c. BC
terracotta
68 cm       

Guru Nanak and Babur

Convinced of the Pathan victory many miracle working pirs had assured Emperor Ibrahim Lodhi that their spells against the Mughal invader, Babur, would work wonders. All the Mughals would be rendered blind. Once again, giving, a study of contrast of the tragic fate of Pathans against the false hopes and assurance of charlatans and magic mongering pirs and astrologers, Guru Nanak Says;

Guru Nanak Says;

Hearing Babur was coming,

Pirs and divines used spells;

Assuring they would blind the invader;

Babur came all the same,

He burnt and razed to the ground their mansions;

He cut the nobles to pieces,

Their heads rolled in dust.

The spells and charms of pirs did not work.

They whose hour had come,

Fell and lost the battle.

Wives of the Hindu, Turk, Bhatti, Rajput Soldiers, Tore down their veils in despair,

And went in search for their dead.

How would they, whose husbands would never return Pass their days and nights ?

Lord's Will is such,

He alone knows the cause of all that.

STRATEGIC OFFENCE & TACTICAL DEFENCE: PANIPAT, 1526

In war, it's advisable to advance into a region that's strategically valuable and, once there, to defend a strong tactical position and force the enemy to make a costly attack. Babur, the ruler of Kabul, set out to defeat Lodi, the sultan of Delhi, but he had just 12,000 men against 100,000, and though his force was armed with gunpowder weapons, their slow rate of fire made his men vulnerable to Lodi's cavalry. Babur advanced rapidly to Panipat near Delhi, knowing this sudden threat to his opponent's capital would prevent him from seeking refuge behind its walls. He selected the battlefield carefully and formed a barrier of wagons, and Lodi's men made a series of fruitless assaults. Having inflicted heavy losses, Babur counter-attacked, then resumed his offensive into India.

Thus, in spite of the assurance of the astrologers and miracle working pirs, the Afghans were not only routed but they were cruelly treated. Their rock like mansions were destroyed, their palaces set ablaze. Princes were hacked to pieces and trampled under dust. Guru Nanak clearly points out that wealth and luxury, the pursuit of physical pleasures sapped the vitality of the Indians and weakened their will and strength to defend themselves. Nations and political powers are born stoic but they die epicurean. So thorough was the destruction, and so complete the route, that Babur could now make up his mind to live and rule India.

It appears that after the battle Guru Nanak went to the battle field. He saw the spectacle with his own eyes. Out of his deeply moved heart came the poignant cry and a question to the generation that lives in disgraceful luxury and dies in despair and humiliation. It is a question he put to the civilization of his own times. It is a question that can be asked on the battle-fields of any war of wanton destruction;

Where are the stables and steeds ?

Where are bugles and drums that beat ?

Where are the buckled sword and arms ?

Where are the scarlet uniforms ?

Where are the mirrors and handsome faces ?

Thou, O Lord of the earth,

In a moment Thou createst,

In a moment Thou destroyest.

Babur ( February 14, 1483 – December 26, 1530) was fourteen years younger than Nanak. He became king of Farghana almost in the same year in which Guru Nanak received the call and the apostolic sovereignty of God at Sultanpur.  When Babur conquered Kabul in 1505 and aspired to conquer India Guru Nanak left Punjab for the moral conquest of the world. The Qadihya Dastgir Pir of Baghdad called Nanak, intoxicated dervish with a rare charm. In a downright earthly way Babur, who like Nanak, loved music and poetry wrote:

A Book of verses underneath the bough,

A jug of Wine, a loaf of bread, and Thou

Beside me singing in the wilderness,

Oh ! wilderness were Paradise enow.

Man, being reasonable must get drunk;

The best of life is but intoxication.                                                                          

The reign of Ibrahim Lodhi had been an unvaried scene of confusion and revolts. His haughty and cruel temper, joined to the impolitic arrogance with which he had treated the Afghan nobles, who considered themselves as having raised his family to the throne, and as being still placed not very far below it, had completely alienated their affection. 

Many of his discontented nobles had retired beyond Ganges and the whole of the eastern provinces were in the hands of the rebels. The Punjab was held by Daulat Khan, and his sons Ghazi Khan and Dilawar Khan, who Afghans themselves, were alarmed at the fate of the Afghan nobles in other parts of the empire and were eager to deliver themselves from the power of the emperor. They felt it was safer to rebel than to continue in subjection to a prince whose violent and unrelenting disposition added new terrors to the harsh maxims of his government. All these things had destroyed their confidence in him. Guided by their fears, they sent envoys to offer their allegiance to Babur to beseech him to march to their succor. No circumstances could have been more in unison with the wishes of Babur.

Guru Nanak had time and again warned the rulers that nemesis would overtake them. His warning given again and again had gone unheeded. His reflections on the times speak volumes on the political and cultural degradation: But we find from the writings of Guru Nanak, that he was an eye witness to the third, fourth and fifth invasions. He roundly condemned Babur's cruelty and treatment of innocent citizens, particularly women of the conquered cities. The first song of Guru Nanak is about the sackage of Syedpur (now known as Eminabad), the second is about the rape of Lahore in the fourth invasion, and the third is about the terrible slaughter and aftermath of the battle of Panipat, which the Emperor of Delhi lost in spite of the assurances of astrologers and miracle working pirs. Guru Nanak points out that it was a battle between arrows of Afghans showered from the backs of elephants by the Afghans and the artillery of Mughal army.

Ravage and Plunder of Syedpur

In 1919 when Guru Nanak was with Lallo at Syedpur on his third tour of Punjab, Babur came like a whirlwind in his third attempt to conquer and subdue India. “He advanced to Sialkot, the inhabitants of which submitted and saved their possessions; but the inhabitants of Syedpur, who resisted, were put to the sword; their wives and children carried into captivity, and all their property plundered”⁴ Streams of innocent blood flowed in the city and the whole of Syedpur was a city of corpses. Guru Nanak sang this song of protest and lamentation and even poignantly blamed God, for this sufferings of the iambs in the hands of wolves, though he felt God would not take any blame on H imself. God had saved Khurasan, but terrorised poor Hindustan of Guru Nanak.

The Rape of Lahore

Babur gave a stunning defeat to the Afghan nobles. “When he entered Lahore in triumph he set fire to the bazars, a superstitious practise common among the Mughals. Babur remained only four days in Lahore, before he proceeded against Dipalpur. The garrison having forced him to risk an assault, he put the whole to the sword, as he did at Syedpur.

The sensitive mind of Guru Nanak vividly brought the miserable lot of the women prisoners of noble families contrasting it in tragic contrast to their normal life before capture. Many times he had warned that someday this city of wanton lust and destructive revelry would suffer from the inevitable results of utter moral degradation. The point to be noted is that Guru Nanak does not accuse Babur of any iconoclast zeal, nor particularly of any anti-Hindu crusade. Both the Hindu and Muslim women were the tragic victims. Their men had been put to the sword, or were away in some other battle. In the whole of this hymn the most touching and pitiable condition of the women of high families is brought to the fore. They had lost their character. They had lost their courage. They lost their freedom and were treated worse than captive slaves were ever treated. Guru Nanak adds:

If these folks had taken heed to the future,

Need they have been reduced to such plight?

Pursuing worldly love and sensual pleasures’,

Desecration and desolation follow in the footsteps;

Of the great Mughal Babur.

From Lahore Babur marched rapidly to Panipat, capturing the Lodhi posts on the way and defeating two detachments sent by Ibrahim in advance of himself, one north-west of Delhi and the other eastward in Doab. Against such a swift-paced compact enemy force Ibrahim Lodhi moved in the lordly Indian fashion, making one march of two or three miles and halting for two days. His camp was one vast disorderly moving city.”⁸

Babur’s forces according to Wolsely Haig were estimated to be 25,000 men. Ibrahim Lodhi is said to have moved with one thousand war elephants and one lakh men. Later historians have given lesser figures. Babur used artillery, which Jadunath Sarkar calls light guns mounted on carts. Afghan nobles felt secure on the howdahs of their elephants and fired arrows and spears. Giving a vivid portrayal of this study on contrast of the modes of fighting Guru Nanak writes about the battle of Panipat thus;

Mughal pathana bhai ladal ran meh tegh vagai,

oni tupak tan calai Oni hast cadhdai.

Ferocious battle raged Between Mughals and Pathans

The sword flashed and clashed in the battle-field,

The Mughals fixed and fired their guns,

The Pathans fought riding their elephants.

If there was one single material factor which more than any other conduced to his ultimate triumph in “Hindustan” writes Rushbrook Williams, it was his powerful artillery.” Describing this battle Jadunath Sarkar writes: “The elephants on which the Indians chiefly relied proved of no use; their drivers were shot down or galled with arrows and the beasts wounded and forced to turn back, treading down their own men. The matchlockmen of Ustad Ali Quli (centre front) and the carted guns of Mustafa Khan Rumi (left of the centre) worked havoc among the densely crowded Afghan ranks. The Indian army was now entirely surrounded and pushed back into a disordered circle. The Afghans fought with desperate fury of trapped beasts; some of their captains even attempted counter charges here and there. But it was all in vain; the mischief of wrong tactics and inferior arms could not be remedied, though six thousand of their men fell in circle round their dead king Ibrahim Lodhi. Then their host broke up in flight; a relentless pursuit followed in which slaughter, plunder and abduction were carried to the very gates of Delhi. Pyramids were built with the heads of the slain.

*Note these are the events centred around Babar encounter with Lodis before encountering his most decisive battle against Rana Sanga which sealed his fate in India in Battle Of Khanwa fought on 16 March 1527 .

Economic compulsion always leads to Political compulsion rather than other way round.

Ghaznavid bilingual coinage

The coins of Mahmud Ghazni struck in India with Arabic and Sanskrit legends on obverse and reverse respectively, show a number of varieties in so far as the legends, the dates and the lettering and its arrangements are concerned.

Ghaznavid control largely continued in the existing administrative system. Thus Ghaznavid coins issued in North western India have bilingual legends written in Arabic and Sharda scripts . Some carry Islamic titles together with the portrayal of the Shaiva Bull, Nandi and the legend Shri samta deva which was completely against the Islamic laws and principles relating to iconoclasm but had to be issued for purpose of trading with people of Hind. The reference in the latter remains ambiguous . A silver dirham struck at Lahore carries a legend in the Sharda script and a rendering in colloquial Sanskrit of the Islamic Kalima.(998-1030 A.D)

"avyak tameka / muhammada a / vatar nrpa / ti mahamudu
“The Invisible is One, Muhammad is the manifestation, Muhammad the king"

The Day Afghanistan Finally And Forever Slipped Out Of India's Hand .

                                    Mughal (INDIA)–Safavid (IRAN) War 1649 A.D–1653 A.D

Shah Jahan the mughal emperor of India was continuously involved in fight after coming in power in north west territory with safavids the dynasty in Persia .

The sequence of conflict

1638 A.D- the armies of Shah Safi of Persia captured Bamyan (Afghanistan)

1639 A.D- Shah Jahan, assisted by Kamran Khan and Malik Maghdood, had marched on Kandahar and negotiated the surrender from the Persian commander, Ali Mardan Khan.Mughal army repaired and fortified the city while remaining in Kabul

1646 A.D- Shah Jahan send his two son Aurangzeb and Murad Baksha both routed and finished the Uzbek army and captured 'Badakshan'(Northern Afghanistan) Though victorious in the field, the Mughals were unable to secure the conquered territories and Shah Jahan was forced to recall his armies from Badakhshan.

1648 A.D- Encouraged by the Mughal reversal in Badakhshan in the summer of 1648 Shah Abbas II marched from Isfahan (Iran) with army of 40,000 he laid siege to Kandahar and easily captured it on 22 February 1649

1649 A.D- Shah Jahan sent Aurangzeb with 50,000 soldiers to recapture it, but although Aurangzeb defeated the Safavids outside the city of Kandhar but he was unable to take it. Aurangzeb attempted to take the fortress city again in 1652. After two months of fighting Persian resistance and the growing activities of the Uzbeks who later formed alliance with Persians Aurangzeb was forced to abandon the campaign.

1653 A.D- Shah Jahan sent his favorite son, Dara Shikoh, with a large army and two of the heaviest artillery pieces of the empire,but after a five-month siege the Mughals couldn't manage to starve the city, and the attempt to breach their walls by cannon fire also failed. The Mughals finally gave up all attempts to recover Kandahar.The total casualties from Indian side was 7000 in men and material  miniature paintings depicting siege of Kandhar as narrated in 'Padshahnama' .

Persian emissary surrendering city of Kandahar before the Mughals.

The siege of Kandhar by Mughal force

Reconstructing the History of the Gupta Age !

The period from 200 BC to AD 300, has been aptly characterized as the age of “the disintegration of the concept of empire”. In this period, the rise of many state structures in different parts of India that failed in their attempt to evolve into large kingdoms.Once again, the idea of an empire became a reality with the emergence of the Guptas in 4th century AD.In this background of small state structures in important parts of India, the Guptas of uncertain origin rose to prominence, whose core region appears to be eastern Uttar Pradesh.A conscious effort is made by historians to portray this Gupta age as the age of ‘Imperial Guptas’ and ‘the Classical Age’. These scholars, in the words of B.D. Chattopadhyaya, were of the opinion, “that an empire is perceived as a political structure assiduously built by the military exploits of several charis­matic royal personalities; it was simultaneously an outcome of the liberation of Northern India from long standing foreign rule and political unification achieved by successfully suppressing centrifugal elements”.With this perspective, R.C. Majumdar observed, “the Gupta Empire, at full maturity, once more brings unity, peace and prosperity over nearly the whole of Northern India”. Echoing the same sentimental perspective U.N. Ghoshal also observed, “The greater part of the country undoubtedly enjoyed high prosperity”.K.K. Dasgupta and R.C. Majumdar also observed, “The imperial Guptas with whom the volume opens, ably countered the centrifugal forces in Northern India and the kingdom, established by Chandragupta I was shortly converted by his son, Samudragupta into an empire. The Gupta Empire, reared by a succession of competent rulers, gave North India not only political stability and imperial peace but also set an exemplary standard in all departments of life and culture. Indeed, the advent of the Guptas on the political stage ushered an epoch which has rightly been called the Golden Age or the classical period of Indian history”.This perception of an imperial, golden and classical age of the Guptas is created, sustained and perpetuated by a group of scholars as they witnessed in the rise of the Guptas an attempt to unite the different pockets of power in northern India. As described by B. Lahiri, “those controlled by the last rulers of the ‘foreign’ Kusanas; the Gana Sangha, Janapadas, unevenly distributed between Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, Himalayas to Haryana and Rajasthan, and petty rulers of what have been called ‘indigenous states’.”

Remembering Our Classical Time... 320 to 550 CE

This period is called the Golden Age of India and was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as "Hindu culture". 

Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The 4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc.【facebook upload】                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
Source material available to reconstruct the history of the Gupta age is scarce.

However, what is available may be classified as:

(1) Literary,

(2) Archaeo­logical, and

(3) Chinese travellers’ accounts.

Literary Sources:

Of all the literary sources, the Puranas occupy an important place. The major Puranas, Vayu, Vishnu, Matsya, Brahmanda and Bhagavata Puranas are very helpful to the students of history. These Puranas were compiled and brought out in written form during this age. Based on the Puranic evidence it is believed that the founder of the Gupta lineage ruled over Prayaga, Saketa and Magadha.Kalidasa, the famous Sanskrit dramatist and poet is considered to belong to this period but V. Ramachandra Dikshitar thinks that Kalidas’ works do not help us as a source material of the Gupta age. Further, Kamandaka’s Nitisara, Pravarasena’s Setubandha Kavya, Kaumudimahotsava a drama, whose authorship is debatable, Visakhadatta’s Devichandraguptam and Mudrarakshasa and Bana’s Harshacharita are the other valuable literary sources to reconstruct the history of the Guptas.

Archaeological Sources:

Chandragupta II was probably a younger son of Samudragupta, who succeeded his father over his older brother Ramagupta, either because of his father's choice, or through force of arms. There is some evidence of trouble between the two brothers and of Chandragupta having put his brother to death.
Chandragupta further expanded the empire he inherited from his father. Notably, he defeated the Western Kshatrapa king, Rudrasimha III and annexed the Western Kshatrapa lands to the Gupta empire. Numismatic evidence of this conquest is seen in Chandragupta's issuance of the first Gupta silver coins based on Western Kshatrapa designs. He also issued copper and lead coins. He reigned c. 375-414.

Epigraphs, coins, seals, monuments and paintings constitute the archaeological source material. A critical examination of Gupta coins helps us not only to deduce the extent of the empire, the artistic excellence and religious beliefs but also the economic soundness of the Gupta period. Gold, silver and copper coins of the Guptas are found in abundance. Generally, the gold coins of the Guptas have the figure of the king on the obverse and a goddess on the reverse with associated symbols like figures of altars, Garuda a dwarf or Tulasi plant.

Gold coins of Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta and Skandagupta have become known. We have also gold coins of Purugupta, Kumaragupta II and Narasimhagupta Baladitya. There are silver coins of Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I and Skandagupta. We have copper coins issued by Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I.

The coins contained legends that indicated their reverence for goddesses, and their epitaphs. The coins of Chandragupta I and his queen Kumaradevi exhibit the importance they attached to the matrimonial alliance with the Lichchavis as a means of gaining political authority while the superior gold coins of Samudragupta reflect the economics of the period prosperity.

The inferior gold coins of the later Guptas reflect the deteriorating economic conditions of their period. The coins with Asvamedha symbol reflect their claim to sovereignty. We may conclude by observing that the gold, silver and copper coins of the Guptas bear testimony to the metal working skill and artisanship of the artisans of that period besides their economic condition.

Epigraphs:

Nearly 42 epigraphs of the Gupta times covering a period from AD 360 to AD 466, besides a number of non-Gupta epigraphs and later inscriptions enable us to reconstruct the history and times of the Gupta period. Of the 42 epigraphs, 19 are official, while the remaining 23 are private records issued by private individuals. Among these epigraphs, 27 are carved on stone and the rest are copper or Tamra Sasanas. The Prasasthis of Samudragupta and two Prasasthis of Skandagupta are very useful in reconstructing the Gupta history. We have also a Prasasthi of Chandragupta II engraved on an iron pillar at Mehrauli in Delhi and the rest of the fourteen copper plates. Generally, the Prasasthis and the copper plates provide us with the geneology of the recipient and the donor.

The private records show the donation of land or utensils to a religious estab­lishment and these private records sometimes mentioned the name and occasionally the achievements of the ruling king. Of the Gupta epigraphs, the most valuable is the Allahabad pillar edict of Samudragupta, written by Harisena, the Mahadandanayaka of Samudragupta. It is a very long Prasasthi as it records the exploits of Samudragupta. Unfortunately, it is undated. It was written in a verse form in classical Sanskrit. Interestingly, 33 lines of this epigraph form a single lengthy sentence. Likewise, the Eran stone epigraph of Samudragupta also provides a glimpse of his achievements.

The hero of the Mehrauli iron pillar, Chandra, has been identified with Chandragupta II and this epigraph deals with his achievements. Chandragupta II’s conquests of western India are recorded in the Udayagiri cave inscription. So also, the Gadhwal stone epigraph, the Bilsad stone pillar epigraph and Mankuar stone-image inscription refer to the achievements of Kumaragupta. The Bhitari pillar epigraph near Benaras contains details of the fight between the Guptas and the Pushyamitras and the Hunas of the time of Skandagupta, the crown prince of Kumaragupta.

The Junagadh rock epigraphs and the Kahum pillar edict are attributed to the time of Skandagupta. Likewise, non-Gupta epigraphs also refer to events that happened during the Gupta regime. An inscription of Kakutsthavarman of the Kadamba dynasty refers to his marriage with the daughters of the Gupta dynasty.

A contemporary inscription of Varman dynasty reveals that they ruled the greater part of Malwa. The inscription does not acknowledge the hegemony of the Guptas. These also provide a clue to the time when the Guptas occupied that territory. About the disintegration and decline of the Gupta Empire, the epigraphs of Toramana and Mihirakula provide valuable information.

The importance of these epigraphs lies in the fact that they enable us to corroborate the information given in the epigraphs of the Guptas. The later dated epigraph of the Rastrakutas, the Saranath epigraph of Pakaditya and the Nalanda record of Yasodharman also indirectly refer to the Guptas and their times.

Monuments:

Besides epigraphs, the monuments of the Gupta period – temples, monasteries and Chaityas – also throw valuable light on the religious and artistic excellence of the Gupta age.

There were three different schools of art and architecture:

(i) Mathura,

(ii) Benaras, and

(iii) Nalanda, during this period.

The cave paintings of Ajanta and Ellora of the Gupta times reflect the artistic tastes and excellence, social life, festivities and Jatras of that time. Likewish, numerous seals found at Vaishali and its neighbourhood provides very valuable infor­mation on the provincial and local government of the Guptas.

Chinese Travellers’ Accounts:

The information obtained about the Guptas from the literary and archaeological sources can be corroborated from the accounts of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fahien; and a later dated account of Itsing who visited the region of the Guptas and recorded his impressions. Fahien spent nine years in India, six of them in the Gupta court, interestingly; he spent three years at Pataliputra itself and visited the other places like Kanauj, Ayodhya, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Vaishali and Kusinagara.

His account Fo-Kuo-Kie or ‘The Record of Buddhist Kingdoms’ gives very interesting information regarding different aspects of the Gupta age. Fahien is oddly silent about the name of the Gupta king. His account alone cannot be accepted as a truthful picture of the Gupta times; we have to carefully corroborate the information with other sources.

Itsing visited India during the closing years of 7th century AD. He refers to the construction of a place of worship for the Chinese pilgrims at Mrigasikhavana by Sri Gupta. A fair amount of knowledge about the times of the Guptas can be gathered from these sources so that the history of this period can be reconstructed with some sources.